Top Companies Of India
The key players of the economy in India are the top companies of India. About 47 Indian companies headed by the corporate giant Reliance Industries are listed among the biggest 2,000 companies of the world by the Forbes,US Magazine.
The new entrants in this list are Hero Honda Motors,Indian Bank,Sun Pharma and Jindal Steel and Power Ltd. The Indian Companies in India have made their significant presence in the world business scenario. On this page you will find the list of Top Companies In India, and also the list of Top 10 Global Companies. The list below gives the names of the best Indian companies.
List Of Top Companies Of India:
Reliance Industries Limited
This is the largest private sector conglomerate in India founded by Dhirubhai Amabani with an annual turnover of about US$ 35.9.This Fortune Global 500 company have its businesses in materials and energy value chain. It enjoys the position of the global leadership and is also the largest producer of yarn and fibre in the world. It ranks among the top ten producers across the globe in major petrochemical products. The primary subsidiaries of the company are Reliance Retail Limited and Reliance Petroleum Limited along with Reliance Industrial Infrastructure Limited.
Oil & Natural Gas Corporation
This company is awarded as the Best Oil and Gas company in Asia. It is the lone contributor of about 84% India's oil and gas. This company is not only among the leading Indian companies but also a leading company of oil and gas. The highest profit making corporate of India is ONGC. It has 77% share in the crude oil production of India. The company's main activity is to explore,refine,produce,market and transport crude oil,natural gas etc.
State Bank of India
It is the largest Indian bank and one of the leading companies in India.It offers banking services through its wide network in India and overseas. With more than 16,000 branches it accounts for the largest bank branch network in India. It offers services like the Mobile Banking,Internet Banking, Demat Services,ATM Services,Corporate Banking,Merchant Banking,Agricultural Banking,online services like online educational loan,online SME loan and many others.
Indian Oil Corporation
It is a public sector Indian Petroleum company and also the largest commercial enterprise in India. This company ranks 116 on the list of the Fortune Global 500 list in the year 2008.It operates the widest and the largest network of fuel stations in India which is about 17,606.Auto LPG Dispensing Stations are started by the company and it helps reach Indane Cooking Gas to 47.5 million households. The company's products are diesel, petrol , Servo Lubricants etc.
ICICI Bank
The largest private sector bank in the sector of market capitalization in India is ICICI Bank and the second largest bank in assets. The wide network of the bank has 1,399 branches,49 regional processing centres,22 regional offices and more than 4,485 ATMs. It provides the banking services like Personal banking,Corporate Net Banking,NRI,Internet Banking,24-hr Customer Care and many other banking facilities.
NTPC
National Thermal Power Corporation Limited is the largest power company in India and has a capacity of 29894 MW with 7 gas based,15 coal based power stations and about four joint ventures. The company is the top among the Best Workplaces for Large Organizations. Two major units of the company is in Orissa. The core business of the company are construction,engineering and operation of power generating plants.
Steel Authority of India Limited
In India,one among the largest steel makers is Steel Authority of India Limited. The company has a turnover of about Rs. 45555 crore. The company also ranks higher among the top five largest profit earning Indian corporate. It is also the 16th largest producer of steel in the world. The website of the company gives all the required information about the Sales, Durgapur Steel Plant and other Plants and Units of the company.
Tata Steel
The company was initially known as TISCO and Tata Iron and Steel Company. It is the sixth largest Indian Steel company in the world. The crude capacity of the company is 28 million tones. It is also ranks second among the largest private sector steel companies in India.It had a profit of Rs 12,350 crore in the year 2008.The main plant is in Jharkhand, Jameshedpur.It has become multinational for its operations across the world. The registered office is in Mumbai. h3>Bharti AirtelBharti Enterprises' flagship company is Bharti Airtel. It is the topmost company in the sector of telecom. The company is ranked as the one with best performance across the globe in 2007 by the Business Week Magazine. It is also the first provider of telephine service in the private sector and has carved the telecom sector path in India. The three business units of the company are Enterprise Services,Mobile services and Broadband and Telephone Services
Reliance Communications
The company offers services like the information and communication,infrastructure and services for individuals and enterprises,consulting and applications. The company consumers are in Reliance Landline, BroadNet, Rworld, Reliance Global call, Reliance IPTV,Wireless Phone,Mobile-CDMA,GSM etc. The company is a renowned name in the implementation and managing of entire telephony solution.
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थे Circus
Circusthe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the event. For other uses, see Circus (disambiguation).
Advertisement for the Barnum & Bailey Circus, 1900.
Circus related terms
Four similar terms are often confused
* Circus is a production or show.
* Circus arts are the performance forms that relate to the circus (the arts of the circus).
* Circus acts are physical compositions which are performed in the circus.
* Circus skills are the techniques used to create and choreograph the acts.
A circus is commonly a travelling company of performers that may include acrobats, clowns, animals, trapeze acts, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other stunt-oriented artists. The word also describes the performance that they give, which is usually a series of acts that are choreographed to music. A circus is held in an oval or circular arena called a ring with tiered seating around its edge; in the case of travelling circuses this location is most often a large tent called the big top.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History of the circus
o 1.1 Origin of the circus
o 1.2 Development of the circus
o 1.3 Contemporary circus
* 2 The circus performance
o 2.1 Circus acts
o 2.2 Animal acts
* 3 Controversy
* 4 Circus music, films, plays, and books
* 5 Circus buildings
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links
[edit] History of the circus
[edit] Origin of the circus
In Ancient Rome the circus was a building for the exhibition of horse and chariot races, equestrian shows, staged battles, displays featuring trained animals, jugglers and acrobats. The circus of Rome is thought to have been influenced by the Greeks, with chariot racing and the exhibition of animals as traditional attractions. The Roman circus consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a crescent around one of the ends. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his friends. In Ancient Rome the circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not separated. The Latin word circus comes from the Greek word kirkos meaning “circle or ring”.[1]
The first circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome were the Circus Flaminius and the Circus Neronis, from the notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth, the Circus of Maxentius, was constructed by Maxentius; the ruins of this circus have helped archaeologists to reconstruct the Roman circus.
For some time after the fall of Rome, Europe lacked a large and animal-rich circus. Itinerant showmen travelled the fair grounds of Europe. Animal trainers and performers are thought to have exploited the nostalgia for the Roman circus, travelling between towns and performing at local fairs. Another possible link between the Roman and modern circus could have been bands of Gypsies who appeared in Europe in the 14th century and in Britain from the 15th century, bringing with them circus skills and trained animals.[citation needed]
In China's Eastern Han Dynasty, scholar Zhang Heng was one of the first to describe acrobatic theme shows in the royal palaces in his writing "Ode to the Western Capital". A grand acrobatic show was held by Emperor Wu of Han in 108 BC for foreign guests[2]. Most western texts describe the circus as a "Chinese Circus". The Far East generally see it as a separate performance art called Chinese variety art, and is not believed to be a direct predecessor to "Western Circus" despite many stunts and performances being similar.
[edit] Development of the circus
Lion tamer, in lithograph by Gibson & Co., 1873.
The modern concept of a circus as a circular arena surrounded by tiers of seats, for the exhibition of equestrian, acrobatic and other performances seems to have existed since the late 18th century.[3] The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that held by Philip Astley in London. The first performance of his circus is said to have been held on January 9, 1768. One of Astley's major contributions to the circus was bringing trick horse-riding into a ring, though Astley referred to it as the Circle. Later, to suit equestrian acts moving from one circus to another, the diameter of the circus ring was set at 42 feet (13 m), which is the size of ring needed for horses to circle comfortably at full gallop. Astley never called his performances a 'circus'; that title was thought up by his rival John Hughes, who set up his Royal Circus a short distance from Astley's 'Amphitheatre of Equestrian Arts' in Lambeth, London. Astley was followed by Andrew Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by Henglers and Sangers celebrated shows in a later generation. In England circuses were often held in purpose built buildings in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display.
Trapeze artists, in lithograph by Calvert Litho. Co., 1890.
Antonio Franconi, the founder of the French circus, is credited by many to be a co-creator of the modern circus, along with Philip Astley.
The first circus building in the United States opened in 1793 in Philadelphia with a performance by John Bill Ricketts[4]. George Washington attended a performance there later that season[5]. In the Americas of the first two decades of the 19th century, The Circus of Pepin and Breschard toured from Montreal to Havana, building circus theatres in many of the cities they visited. Later the establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wider popularity to the circus in the United States. In 1825 Joshuah Purdy Brown was the first circus owner to use a large canvas tent for the circus performance. Circus pioneer Dan Rice was probably the most famous circus and clown pre-Civil War, popularizing such expressions as "The One-Horse Show" and "Hey, Rube!". The American circus was revolutionized by P. T. Barnum and William Cameron Coup, who launched P. T. Barnum's Museum, Menagerie & Circus, a traveling combination of animal and human oddities, the exhibition of humans as a freak show or sideshow was thus an American invention. Coup was also the first circus entrepreneur to use circus trains to transport the circus from town to town; a practice that continues today and introduced the first multiple ringed circuses.
In 1840 the equestrian Thomas Cooke returned to England from the United States, bringing with him a circus tent. Three important circus innovators were Italian Giuseppe Chiarini, and Frenchmen Louis Soullier and Jacques Tourniaire, whose early travelling circuses introduced the circus to Latin America, Australia, South East Asia, China, South Africa and Russia. Soullier was the first circus owner to introduce Chinese acrobatics to the European circus when he returned from his travels in 1866 and Tourniaire was the first to introduce the performing art to Ranga where it became extremely popular. Following Barnum's death his circus merged with that of James Anthony Bailey, and travelled to Europe as The Barnum & Bailey Greatest Show On Earth where it toured from 1897 to 1902, impressing other circus owners with its large scale, its touring techniques including the tent and circus train and the combination of circus acts, zoological exhibition and the freak show. This format was adopted by European circuses at the turn of the 20th century.
The influence of the American circus brought about a considerable change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialog of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive machinery.
In 1919, Lenin, head of the USSR, expressed a wish for the circus to become 'the people's art-form', given facilities and status on a par with theatre, opera and ballet. The USSR nationalized the Soviet circuses. In 1927 the State University of Circus and Variety Arts, better known as the Moscow Circus School was established where performers were trained using methods developed from the Soviet gymnastics program. When the Moscow State Circus company began international tours in the 1950s, its levels of originality and artistic skill were widely applauded, and the high standard of the Russian State circus continues to this day.
Circuses from China, drawing on Chinese traditions of acrobatics, like the Chinese State Circus are also popular touring acts.
The International Circus Festival of Monte-Carlo[6] has been held in Monte Carlo since 1974 and was the first of many international awards for circus performers.
[edit] Contemporary circus
Main article: Contemporary Circus
Cirque du Soleil performing Dralion in Vienna, 2004
In the 1960s and 1970s, the circus began to lose popularity as people became more interested in alternative forms of entertainment. Some circuses have stayed afloat by merging with other circus companies. There are numerous circuses that maintain animal and human performers, these include Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus, Circus Krone[7] from Munich, Circus Royale and Lennon Bros Circus from Australia and the Big Apple Circus.The Circus Circus, a Las Vegas circus-themed casino and the largest permanent big top in the world, presents human but not animal performances.
Cirque nouveau / New Circus is a performing arts movement that developed in the 1970s, simultaneously in France, Australia the West Coast of the U.S. and the U.K . There are no animals used in this type of circus and influences are drawn as much from contemporary culture as from circus history. Examples include Circus Oz forged in Australia in 1977 from SoapBox Circus and New Circus, both founded in the early 1970s, The Pickle Family Circus[8] founded in San Francisco in 1975, and more recently Circus Burlesque from the U.K in 1980 and Nofitstate circus[9] in 1984 from Wales, Cirque du Soleil founded in Quebec, Canada in 1984, Archaos in 1986, Club Swing in 1994, through to more recent examples such as Teatro ZinZanni, founded in Seattle in 1998, Quebec's Cirque Éloize, Les 7 Doigts de la Main, also known as The 7 Fingers [10], and the West African (French Guinea - Guinée) Circus Baobab[11] in the late 1990s. The form includes other circus troupes such as the Le Cirque Imaginaire, later renamed Le Cirque Invisible both founded and directed by Victoria Chaplin, daughter of Charlie Chaplin, the Tiger Lillies, Circus Monoxide, Acrobat, Dislocate[12], RANGA Circus[13] (now CIRCA, Clandestine Insurgent Rebel Clown Army), and Throwdown, while The Jim Rose Circus and The Happy Sideshow are both interesting takes on the sideshow. The Moscow State Circus is a non animal circus.
Swedish nouveau circus company Cirkus Cirkör was founded 1995. U.S. Company PURE Cirkus [14] under the Genre of Cirque Noir, was founded in 2004, and in Northern England, (United Kingdom), combining punk, rap, dance music, comedy, and daring stunts, Skewed Circus[15] delivers "pop-circus" genre entertainment to young urban audiences who have not had the opportunity to visit traditional circuses.
In 2007, Cirque du Soleil revenues were estimated at between US$550–$600 million.[16] In a 2009 interview, Ringling CEO Kenneth Feld stated that low advance ticket sales were offset by increased walk-up traffic. Feld did not reveal any figures but stated that sales were up. [17]
[edit] The circus performance
Fire breathers risk burns, both internal and external, as well as poisoning in the pursuit of their art.
A traditional circus performance is led by a ringmaster who has a role similar to a Master of Ceremonies. The ringmaster presents performers, speaks to the audience, and generally keeps the show moving. The activity of the circus takes place within a ring; large circuses may have multiple rings, like the six ringed Moscow State Circus. A circus traditionally has its own band.
[edit] Circus acts
Common acts include a variety of acrobatics, gymnastics (including tumbling and trampoline), aerial acts (such as trapeze, aerial silk, corde lisse), contortion, stilts and a variety of other routines. Juggling is one of the most common acts in a circus; the combination of juggling and gymnastics is called equilibristics and include acts like plate spinning or the rolling globe.
Clowns are common to most circuses and are typically skilled in many circus acts; "clowns getting into the act" is a very familiar theme in any circus. Famous circus clowns have included Austin Miles, the Fratellini Family, Emmett Kelly, Grock and Bill Irwin.
Daredevil stunt acts and sideshow acts are also parts of some circus acts, these activities may include human cannonball, chapeaugraphy, fire eating, breathing and dancing, knife throwing, magic shows, sword swallowing or strongman. Famous sideshow performers include Zip the Pinhead and The Doll Family. A popular sideshow attraction from the early 19th century was the flea circus, where fleas were attached to props and viewed through a Fresnel lens.
[edit] Animal acts
Female lion tamer and leopard. Animal rights activists allege that these acts involve cruel training methods.
Elephants from Cole Brothers Circus parade through downtown Los Angeles, 1953
A variety of animals have historically been used in acts. While the types of animals used vary from circus to circus, big cats, elephants, horses, birds, sea lions, bears and domestic animals are the most common.
The earliest involvement of animals in circus was just the display of exotic creatures. As far back as the early eighteenth century, exotic animals were transported to North America for display, and menageries were a popular form of entertainment.[18] The first true animals acts in the circus were equestrian acts. Soon elephants and big cats were displayed as well. Isaac A. Van Amburgh entered a cage with several big cats in 1833, and is generally considered to be the first wild animal trainer in American circus history.[19] Mabel Stark was a famous female tiger-tamer.
[edit] Controversy
For long, the use of animals in the circus has been a matter of controversy, as animal-welfare groups have documented many cases of animal cruelty in the training of performing animals.
The Animal Rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) contends that animals in circuses are frequently beaten into submission and that physical abuse has always been the method for training circus animals. According to PETA, although the US Animal Welfare Act does not permit the use of electric shock prods, whips, hooks, or similar instruments by trainers, these are still used today. According to PETA, during an undercover investigation of Carson & Barnes Circus, video footage was captured showing animal care director Tim Frisco violently and viciously attacking endangered Asian elephants, repeatedly sinking hooks into the animals' flesh until they howled in agony.[20]
In testimony in U.S. District Court in 2009, Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind the ears, under the chin and on their legs with metal tipped prods, called bull hooks. Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers. Feld also acknowledged that an elephant trainer was reprimanded for using an electric shock device, known as a hot shot or electric prod, on an elephant, which Feld also stated was appropriate practice. Feld denied that any of these practices harm elephants.[21]
It is treatment like this that may lie behind cases of unpredictable and dangerous behaviour by circus animals, such as that of a circus elephant called Tyke (1974 – August 20, 1994)[22]. During a Circus International performance in Honolulu, Hawaii on 20 August 1994, Tyke killed her trainer, Allen Campbell, and severely mauled her groomer, Dallas Beckwith, in front of hundreds of horrified spectators. Tyke then bolted from the arena and ran through the streets of Kakaako for more than thirty minutes. Police fired 86 shots at Tyke who eventually collapsed from the wounds and died.
In 1998 in the UK, a parliamentary working group chaired by MP Roger Gale studied living conditions and treatment of animals in UK circuses. All members of this group agreed that a change in the law was needed to protect circus animals. Mr Gale told the BBC, "It's undignified and the conditions under which they are kept are woefully inadequate - the cages are too small, the environments they live in are not suitable and many of us believe the time has come for that practice to end." The group reported concerns about boredom and stress, and noted that an independent study by a member of the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit at Oxford University "found no evidence that circuses contribute to education or conservation." [23]
Sweden, Austria, Costa Rica, India, Finland, Singapore, Switzerland, and Denmark have already restricted the use of animals in entertainment. The UK and Scottish Parliaments have committed to ban certain wild animals in travelling circuses. In response to a growing popular concern about the use of animals in entertainment, animal-free circuses are becoming more common around the world.[24] Israel has banned any animal from performing in any circus.[citation needed]
In 2009, Bolivia passed legislation banning the use of any animals, wild or domestic, in circuses. The law states that circuses "constitute an act of cruelty." Circus operators have one year from the bill's passage on July 1, 2009 to comply. [25]
[edit] Circus music, films, plays, and books
See also: Circus music
The atmosphere of the circus has served as a dramatic setting for many musicians. The famous circus theme song is actually called "Entrance of the Gladiators", and was composed in 1904 by Julius Fučík. Other circus music includes "El Caballero", "Quality Plus", "Sunnyland Waltzes", "The Storming of El Caney", "Pahjamah", "Bull Trombone", "Big Time Boogie", "Royal Bridesmaid March", "The Baby Elephant Walk", "Liberty Bell March", "Java", Strauss's "Radetsky March", and "Pageant of Progress".
Plays set in a circus include the 1896 musical The Circus Girl by Lionel Monckton, Polly of the Circus written in 1907 by Margaret Mayo, He Who Gets Slapped written by Russian Leonid Andreyev 1916 and later adapted into one of the first circus films, Caravan written in 1932 by Carl Zuckmayer, the revue Big Top written by Herbert Farjeon in 1942, Top of the Ladder written by Tyrone Gutheris in 1950, Stop the World, I Want to Get Off written by Anthony Newley in 1961, and Barnum with music by Cy Coleman and lyrics and book by Mark Bramble.
Following the First World War circus films became popular; in 1924 He Who Gets Slapped was the first film released by MGM; in 1925 Sally of the Sawdust (remade 1930), Variety, and Vaudeville were produced, followed by The Devil's Circus in 1926 and The Circus starring Charlie Chaplin, Circus Rookies, 4 Devils; and Laugh Clown Laugh in 1928. German film Salto Mortale about trapeze artists was released in 1930 and remade in the United States and released as Trapeze starring Burt Lancaster in 1956; in 1932 Freaks was released; Charlie Chan at the Circus, Circus (USSR) and The Three Maxiums were released in 1936 and At the Circus starring the Marx Brothers and You Can't Cheat an Honest Man in 1939. Circus films continued to be popular during the Second World War, The Great Profile starring John Barrymore was released in 1940, the animated Disney film Dumbo, Road Show and The Wagons Roll at Night in 1941 and Captive Wild Woman in 1943.
The film Tromba, about a tiger trainer was released in 1948 and in 1952 Cecil B. de Mille's Oscar winning film The Greatest Show on Earth was first shown. Released in 1953 were Man on a Tightrope and Ingmar Bergman's Gycklarnas afton released as Sawdust and Tinsel in the United States; Life is a Circus; Ring of Fear; 3 Ring Circus and La strada an Oscar winning film by Federico Fellini about a girl who is sold to a circus strongman; Fellini made a second film set in the circus called The Clowns in 1970. Films about the circus made since 1959 include B-movie Circus of Horrors, musical Billy Rose's Jumbo, A Tiger Walks a Disney film about a tiger that escapes from the circus and Circus World starring John Wayne.
In the film Jungle Emperor Leo, Leo's son, Lune, is captured and placed in a circus, which burns down when a tiger knocks down a ring of fire while jumping through it.
The TV series Circus Humberto, based on the novel by Eduard Bass, follows the history of the circus family Humberto between 1826-1924. The setting of the HBO television series Carnivàle, which ran from 2003-2005, is also largely set in a traveling circus.
The circus has also inspired many writers. Numerous books, both non-fiction and fiction, have been published about circus life. Notable examples of circus-based fiction include Circus Humberto by Eduard Bass and Spangled by Gary Jennings.
[edit] Circus buildings
In some towns, there are circus buildings. The best known are
* Circus Krone Building in Munich
* Moscow Circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard in Moscow
* Shanghai Circus World in Shanghai
* Cirque d'Hiver, Paris
* Budapest Circus
* Blackpool Tower Circus
* Hippodrome Circus, Great Yarmouth
In other countries, purpose-built circus buildings still exist which are no longer used as circuses, or are used for circus only occasionally among a wider programme of events; for example, the Circus Schumann in Copenhagen, Denmark or Cirkus in Stockholm, Sweden.
[edit] See also
The Circus, by Georges Seurat, painted 1891. Original in Musée d'Orsay, Paris.
# This page was last modified on 11 August 2009 at 14:48.
# Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
# Privacy policy
# About Wikipedia
# Disc
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the event. For other uses, see Circus (disambiguation).
Advertisement for the Barnum & Bailey Circus, 1900.
Circus related terms
Four similar terms are often confused
* Circus is a production or show.
* Circus arts are the performance forms that relate to the circus (the arts of the circus).
* Circus acts are physical compositions which are performed in the circus.
* Circus skills are the techniques used to create and choreograph the acts.
A circus is commonly a travelling company of performers that may include acrobats, clowns, animals, trapeze acts, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, unicyclists and other stunt-oriented artists. The word also describes the performance that they give, which is usually a series of acts that are choreographed to music. A circus is held in an oval or circular arena called a ring with tiered seating around its edge; in the case of travelling circuses this location is most often a large tent called the big top.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 History of the circus
o 1.1 Origin of the circus
o 1.2 Development of the circus
o 1.3 Contemporary circus
* 2 The circus performance
o 2.1 Circus acts
o 2.2 Animal acts
* 3 Controversy
* 4 Circus music, films, plays, and books
* 5 Circus buildings
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links
[edit] History of the circus
[edit] Origin of the circus
In Ancient Rome the circus was a building for the exhibition of horse and chariot races, equestrian shows, staged battles, displays featuring trained animals, jugglers and acrobats. The circus of Rome is thought to have been influenced by the Greeks, with chariot racing and the exhibition of animals as traditional attractions. The Roman circus consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a crescent around one of the ends. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his friends. In Ancient Rome the circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not separated. The Latin word circus comes from the Greek word kirkos meaning “circle or ring”.[1]
The first circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills. Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome were the Circus Flaminius and the Circus Neronis, from the notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth, the Circus of Maxentius, was constructed by Maxentius; the ruins of this circus have helped archaeologists to reconstruct the Roman circus.
For some time after the fall of Rome, Europe lacked a large and animal-rich circus. Itinerant showmen travelled the fair grounds of Europe. Animal trainers and performers are thought to have exploited the nostalgia for the Roman circus, travelling between towns and performing at local fairs. Another possible link between the Roman and modern circus could have been bands of Gypsies who appeared in Europe in the 14th century and in Britain from the 15th century, bringing with them circus skills and trained animals.[citation needed]
In China's Eastern Han Dynasty, scholar Zhang Heng was one of the first to describe acrobatic theme shows in the royal palaces in his writing "Ode to the Western Capital". A grand acrobatic show was held by Emperor Wu of Han in 108 BC for foreign guests[2]. Most western texts describe the circus as a "Chinese Circus". The Far East generally see it as a separate performance art called Chinese variety art, and is not believed to be a direct predecessor to "Western Circus" despite many stunts and performances being similar.
[edit] Development of the circus
Lion tamer, in lithograph by Gibson & Co., 1873.
The modern concept of a circus as a circular arena surrounded by tiers of seats, for the exhibition of equestrian, acrobatic and other performances seems to have existed since the late 18th century.[3] The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that held by Philip Astley in London. The first performance of his circus is said to have been held on January 9, 1768. One of Astley's major contributions to the circus was bringing trick horse-riding into a ring, though Astley referred to it as the Circle. Later, to suit equestrian acts moving from one circus to another, the diameter of the circus ring was set at 42 feet (13 m), which is the size of ring needed for horses to circle comfortably at full gallop. Astley never called his performances a 'circus'; that title was thought up by his rival John Hughes, who set up his Royal Circus a short distance from Astley's 'Amphitheatre of Equestrian Arts' in Lambeth, London. Astley was followed by Andrew Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by Henglers and Sangers celebrated shows in a later generation. In England circuses were often held in purpose built buildings in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display.
Trapeze artists, in lithograph by Calvert Litho. Co., 1890.
Antonio Franconi, the founder of the French circus, is credited by many to be a co-creator of the modern circus, along with Philip Astley.
The first circus building in the United States opened in 1793 in Philadelphia with a performance by John Bill Ricketts[4]. George Washington attended a performance there later that season[5]. In the Americas of the first two decades of the 19th century, The Circus of Pepin and Breschard toured from Montreal to Havana, building circus theatres in many of the cities they visited. Later the establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wider popularity to the circus in the United States. In 1825 Joshuah Purdy Brown was the first circus owner to use a large canvas tent for the circus performance. Circus pioneer Dan Rice was probably the most famous circus and clown pre-Civil War, popularizing such expressions as "The One-Horse Show" and "Hey, Rube!". The American circus was revolutionized by P. T. Barnum and William Cameron Coup, who launched P. T. Barnum's Museum, Menagerie & Circus, a traveling combination of animal and human oddities, the exhibition of humans as a freak show or sideshow was thus an American invention. Coup was also the first circus entrepreneur to use circus trains to transport the circus from town to town; a practice that continues today and introduced the first multiple ringed circuses.
In 1840 the equestrian Thomas Cooke returned to England from the United States, bringing with him a circus tent. Three important circus innovators were Italian Giuseppe Chiarini, and Frenchmen Louis Soullier and Jacques Tourniaire, whose early travelling circuses introduced the circus to Latin America, Australia, South East Asia, China, South Africa and Russia. Soullier was the first circus owner to introduce Chinese acrobatics to the European circus when he returned from his travels in 1866 and Tourniaire was the first to introduce the performing art to Ranga where it became extremely popular. Following Barnum's death his circus merged with that of James Anthony Bailey, and travelled to Europe as The Barnum & Bailey Greatest Show On Earth where it toured from 1897 to 1902, impressing other circus owners with its large scale, its touring techniques including the tent and circus train and the combination of circus acts, zoological exhibition and the freak show. This format was adopted by European circuses at the turn of the 20th century.
The influence of the American circus brought about a considerable change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialog of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive machinery.
In 1919, Lenin, head of the USSR, expressed a wish for the circus to become 'the people's art-form', given facilities and status on a par with theatre, opera and ballet. The USSR nationalized the Soviet circuses. In 1927 the State University of Circus and Variety Arts, better known as the Moscow Circus School was established where performers were trained using methods developed from the Soviet gymnastics program. When the Moscow State Circus company began international tours in the 1950s, its levels of originality and artistic skill were widely applauded, and the high standard of the Russian State circus continues to this day.
Circuses from China, drawing on Chinese traditions of acrobatics, like the Chinese State Circus are also popular touring acts.
The International Circus Festival of Monte-Carlo[6] has been held in Monte Carlo since 1974 and was the first of many international awards for circus performers.
[edit] Contemporary circus
Main article: Contemporary Circus
Cirque du Soleil performing Dralion in Vienna, 2004
In the 1960s and 1970s, the circus began to lose popularity as people became more interested in alternative forms of entertainment. Some circuses have stayed afloat by merging with other circus companies. There are numerous circuses that maintain animal and human performers, these include Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus, Circus Krone[7] from Munich, Circus Royale and Lennon Bros Circus from Australia and the Big Apple Circus.The Circus Circus, a Las Vegas circus-themed casino and the largest permanent big top in the world, presents human but not animal performances.
Cirque nouveau / New Circus is a performing arts movement that developed in the 1970s, simultaneously in France, Australia the West Coast of the U.S. and the U.K . There are no animals used in this type of circus and influences are drawn as much from contemporary culture as from circus history. Examples include Circus Oz forged in Australia in 1977 from SoapBox Circus and New Circus, both founded in the early 1970s, The Pickle Family Circus[8] founded in San Francisco in 1975, and more recently Circus Burlesque from the U.K in 1980 and Nofitstate circus[9] in 1984 from Wales, Cirque du Soleil founded in Quebec, Canada in 1984, Archaos in 1986, Club Swing in 1994, through to more recent examples such as Teatro ZinZanni, founded in Seattle in 1998, Quebec's Cirque Éloize, Les 7 Doigts de la Main, also known as The 7 Fingers [10], and the West African (French Guinea - Guinée) Circus Baobab[11] in the late 1990s. The form includes other circus troupes such as the Le Cirque Imaginaire, later renamed Le Cirque Invisible both founded and directed by Victoria Chaplin, daughter of Charlie Chaplin, the Tiger Lillies, Circus Monoxide, Acrobat, Dislocate[12], RANGA Circus[13] (now CIRCA, Clandestine Insurgent Rebel Clown Army), and Throwdown, while The Jim Rose Circus and The Happy Sideshow are both interesting takes on the sideshow. The Moscow State Circus is a non animal circus.
Swedish nouveau circus company Cirkus Cirkör was founded 1995. U.S. Company PURE Cirkus [14] under the Genre of Cirque Noir, was founded in 2004, and in Northern England, (United Kingdom), combining punk, rap, dance music, comedy, and daring stunts, Skewed Circus[15] delivers "pop-circus" genre entertainment to young urban audiences who have not had the opportunity to visit traditional circuses.
In 2007, Cirque du Soleil revenues were estimated at between US$550–$600 million.[16] In a 2009 interview, Ringling CEO Kenneth Feld stated that low advance ticket sales were offset by increased walk-up traffic. Feld did not reveal any figures but stated that sales were up. [17]
[edit] The circus performance
Fire breathers risk burns, both internal and external, as well as poisoning in the pursuit of their art.
A traditional circus performance is led by a ringmaster who has a role similar to a Master of Ceremonies. The ringmaster presents performers, speaks to the audience, and generally keeps the show moving. The activity of the circus takes place within a ring; large circuses may have multiple rings, like the six ringed Moscow State Circus. A circus traditionally has its own band.
[edit] Circus acts
Common acts include a variety of acrobatics, gymnastics (including tumbling and trampoline), aerial acts (such as trapeze, aerial silk, corde lisse), contortion, stilts and a variety of other routines. Juggling is one of the most common acts in a circus; the combination of juggling and gymnastics is called equilibristics and include acts like plate spinning or the rolling globe.
Clowns are common to most circuses and are typically skilled in many circus acts; "clowns getting into the act" is a very familiar theme in any circus. Famous circus clowns have included Austin Miles, the Fratellini Family, Emmett Kelly, Grock and Bill Irwin.
Daredevil stunt acts and sideshow acts are also parts of some circus acts, these activities may include human cannonball, chapeaugraphy, fire eating, breathing and dancing, knife throwing, magic shows, sword swallowing or strongman. Famous sideshow performers include Zip the Pinhead and The Doll Family. A popular sideshow attraction from the early 19th century was the flea circus, where fleas were attached to props and viewed through a Fresnel lens.
[edit] Animal acts
Female lion tamer and leopard. Animal rights activists allege that these acts involve cruel training methods.
Elephants from Cole Brothers Circus parade through downtown Los Angeles, 1953
A variety of animals have historically been used in acts. While the types of animals used vary from circus to circus, big cats, elephants, horses, birds, sea lions, bears and domestic animals are the most common.
The earliest involvement of animals in circus was just the display of exotic creatures. As far back as the early eighteenth century, exotic animals were transported to North America for display, and menageries were a popular form of entertainment.[18] The first true animals acts in the circus were equestrian acts. Soon elephants and big cats were displayed as well. Isaac A. Van Amburgh entered a cage with several big cats in 1833, and is generally considered to be the first wild animal trainer in American circus history.[19] Mabel Stark was a famous female tiger-tamer.
[edit] Controversy
For long, the use of animals in the circus has been a matter of controversy, as animal-welfare groups have documented many cases of animal cruelty in the training of performing animals.
The Animal Rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) contends that animals in circuses are frequently beaten into submission and that physical abuse has always been the method for training circus animals. According to PETA, although the US Animal Welfare Act does not permit the use of electric shock prods, whips, hooks, or similar instruments by trainers, these are still used today. According to PETA, during an undercover investigation of Carson & Barnes Circus, video footage was captured showing animal care director Tim Frisco violently and viciously attacking endangered Asian elephants, repeatedly sinking hooks into the animals' flesh until they howled in agony.[20]
In testimony in U.S. District Court in 2009, Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus CEO Kenneth Feld acknowledged that circus elephants are struck behind the ears, under the chin and on their legs with metal tipped prods, called bull hooks. Feld stated that these practices are necessary to protect circus workers. Feld also acknowledged that an elephant trainer was reprimanded for using an electric shock device, known as a hot shot or electric prod, on an elephant, which Feld also stated was appropriate practice. Feld denied that any of these practices harm elephants.[21]
It is treatment like this that may lie behind cases of unpredictable and dangerous behaviour by circus animals, such as that of a circus elephant called Tyke (1974 – August 20, 1994)[22]. During a Circus International performance in Honolulu, Hawaii on 20 August 1994, Tyke killed her trainer, Allen Campbell, and severely mauled her groomer, Dallas Beckwith, in front of hundreds of horrified spectators. Tyke then bolted from the arena and ran through the streets of Kakaako for more than thirty minutes. Police fired 86 shots at Tyke who eventually collapsed from the wounds and died.
In 1998 in the UK, a parliamentary working group chaired by MP Roger Gale studied living conditions and treatment of animals in UK circuses. All members of this group agreed that a change in the law was needed to protect circus animals. Mr Gale told the BBC, "It's undignified and the conditions under which they are kept are woefully inadequate - the cages are too small, the environments they live in are not suitable and many of us believe the time has come for that practice to end." The group reported concerns about boredom and stress, and noted that an independent study by a member of the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit at Oxford University "found no evidence that circuses contribute to education or conservation." [23]
Sweden, Austria, Costa Rica, India, Finland, Singapore, Switzerland, and Denmark have already restricted the use of animals in entertainment. The UK and Scottish Parliaments have committed to ban certain wild animals in travelling circuses. In response to a growing popular concern about the use of animals in entertainment, animal-free circuses are becoming more common around the world.[24] Israel has banned any animal from performing in any circus.[citation needed]
In 2009, Bolivia passed legislation banning the use of any animals, wild or domestic, in circuses. The law states that circuses "constitute an act of cruelty." Circus operators have one year from the bill's passage on July 1, 2009 to comply. [25]
[edit] Circus music, films, plays, and books
See also: Circus music
The atmosphere of the circus has served as a dramatic setting for many musicians. The famous circus theme song is actually called "Entrance of the Gladiators", and was composed in 1904 by Julius Fučík. Other circus music includes "El Caballero", "Quality Plus", "Sunnyland Waltzes", "The Storming of El Caney", "Pahjamah", "Bull Trombone", "Big Time Boogie", "Royal Bridesmaid March", "The Baby Elephant Walk", "Liberty Bell March", "Java", Strauss's "Radetsky March", and "Pageant of Progress".
Plays set in a circus include the 1896 musical The Circus Girl by Lionel Monckton, Polly of the Circus written in 1907 by Margaret Mayo, He Who Gets Slapped written by Russian Leonid Andreyev 1916 and later adapted into one of the first circus films, Caravan written in 1932 by Carl Zuckmayer, the revue Big Top written by Herbert Farjeon in 1942, Top of the Ladder written by Tyrone Gutheris in 1950, Stop the World, I Want to Get Off written by Anthony Newley in 1961, and Barnum with music by Cy Coleman and lyrics and book by Mark Bramble.
Following the First World War circus films became popular; in 1924 He Who Gets Slapped was the first film released by MGM; in 1925 Sally of the Sawdust (remade 1930), Variety, and Vaudeville were produced, followed by The Devil's Circus in 1926 and The Circus starring Charlie Chaplin, Circus Rookies, 4 Devils; and Laugh Clown Laugh in 1928. German film Salto Mortale about trapeze artists was released in 1930 and remade in the United States and released as Trapeze starring Burt Lancaster in 1956; in 1932 Freaks was released; Charlie Chan at the Circus, Circus (USSR) and The Three Maxiums were released in 1936 and At the Circus starring the Marx Brothers and You Can't Cheat an Honest Man in 1939. Circus films continued to be popular during the Second World War, The Great Profile starring John Barrymore was released in 1940, the animated Disney film Dumbo, Road Show and The Wagons Roll at Night in 1941 and Captive Wild Woman in 1943.
The film Tromba, about a tiger trainer was released in 1948 and in 1952 Cecil B. de Mille's Oscar winning film The Greatest Show on Earth was first shown. Released in 1953 were Man on a Tightrope and Ingmar Bergman's Gycklarnas afton released as Sawdust and Tinsel in the United States; Life is a Circus; Ring of Fear; 3 Ring Circus and La strada an Oscar winning film by Federico Fellini about a girl who is sold to a circus strongman; Fellini made a second film set in the circus called The Clowns in 1970. Films about the circus made since 1959 include B-movie Circus of Horrors, musical Billy Rose's Jumbo, A Tiger Walks a Disney film about a tiger that escapes from the circus and Circus World starring John Wayne.
In the film Jungle Emperor Leo, Leo's son, Lune, is captured and placed in a circus, which burns down when a tiger knocks down a ring of fire while jumping through it.
The TV series Circus Humberto, based on the novel by Eduard Bass, follows the history of the circus family Humberto between 1826-1924. The setting of the HBO television series Carnivàle, which ran from 2003-2005, is also largely set in a traveling circus.
The circus has also inspired many writers. Numerous books, both non-fiction and fiction, have been published about circus life. Notable examples of circus-based fiction include Circus Humberto by Eduard Bass and Spangled by Gary Jennings.
[edit] Circus buildings
In some towns, there are circus buildings. The best known are
* Circus Krone Building in Munich
* Moscow Circus on Tsvetnoy Boulevard in Moscow
* Shanghai Circus World in Shanghai
* Cirque d'Hiver, Paris
* Budapest Circus
* Blackpool Tower Circus
* Hippodrome Circus, Great Yarmouth
In other countries, purpose-built circus buildings still exist which are no longer used as circuses, or are used for circus only occasionally among a wider programme of events; for example, the Circus Schumann in Copenhagen, Denmark or Cirkus in Stockholm, Sweden.
[edit] See also
The Circus, by Georges Seurat, painted 1891. Original in Musée d'Orsay, Paris.
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Selasa, 04 Agustus 2009
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